lanskap paris

Arsitektur

Paris "Modern" adalah hasil dari perancangan ulang urban pertengahan abad ke-19^[rujukan?]. Berabad-abad kota ini telah menjadi labirin bagi jalan sempit dan rumah setengah-kayu, tapi berawal tahun 1852, urbanisasi luas Baron Haussmann meratakan seluruh distrik untuk membuat jalan lebar yang dilengkapi denan bangunan batu neo-klasik bourgeoise; kebanyakan Paris 'baru' ini adalah Paris yang kita lihat hari ini. Rencana Kekaisaran Kedua masih terjadi sekarang, sementara kota Paris masih memberlakukan hukum "pelurusan" yang telah diubah (facade bangunan diganti menurut lebar jalan) pada beberapa pembangunan baru. Tinggi bangunan juga ditetapkan menurut lebar jalan yang dilalui, dan kode bangunan Paris telah mengalami berbagai perubahan sejak pertengahan abad ke-19 untuk konstruksi tinggi. Ini menjadi alasan bahwa Paris adalah kota yang "datar"^[rujukan?].
Perbatasan Paris yang tak berubah, kode bangunan yang dibatasi dan jarangnya tanah kosong telah membantu membuat fenomena yang disebut muséification (atau "museumifikasi"), pada waktu yang sama mereka melestarikan masa lalu bersejarah Paris, hukum yang telah ditetapkan menjadikannya sulit membangun di dalam batas kota bangunan tinggi dan kebutuhan yang dibutuhkan untuk penduduk yang terus meningkat^[rujukan?]. Banyak institusi dan infrastruktur ekonomi Paris telah dipindahkan, atau direncanakan pindah ke, pinggiran kota^[rujukan?]. Distrik bisnis keuangan (La Défense), pasar makanan utama (Rungis), sekolah terkenal (École Polytechnique, HEC, ESSEC,INSEAD, dll.), laboratorium penelitian terkenal di dunia (di Saclay atau Évry), stadion olahraga terbesar (Stade de France), dan beberapa kementerian (Kementerian Transportasi) terletak di luat kota Paris. Arsip Nasional Perancis akan dipindahkan ke pinggiran utara sebelum 2010^[rujukan?]. Kebutuhan untuk Paris yang lebih besar ditanggapi oleh pemerintah Perancis. Pada November 2007, diskusi untuk Paris besar telah dimulai, pinggiran kota mana yang akan dimasukkan dalam Paris besar belum diputuskan. Dalam beberapa hal, seperti perluasan tidak akan terjadi sebelum pemilihan balai kota Perancis, dijadwalkan pada musim semi 2008.

topografi paris

Paris terletak di belokan Sungai Seine menuju utara dan terdiri dari dua pulau, Île Saint-Louis dan Île de la Cité, yang membentuk bagian tertua kota. Keseluruhan, kota ini datar, dan titik terendahnya 35 meter (114 kaki) di atas permukaan laut. Paris memiliki beberapa bukit, yang tertingi adalah Montmartre pada 130 m (426 kaki).^[rujukan?]Paris, tak termasuk taman luar Bois de Boulogne dan Bois de Vincennes, mencakup wilayah berbentuk oval seluas 86,928 kilometer persegi (33,56 mil persegi).^[rujukan?] Aneksasi besar kota terhadap teritori luar tahun 1860 tidak hanya memberikan bentuk modern-nya, tapi membentuk dua belas arondisemen searah jarum jam (borough kotamadya). Dari wilayah 1860 seluas 78 km² (30.1 sq mi), batas kota meluas menjadi 86.9 km² (34 sq mi) tahun 1920-an. Tahun 1929 taman hutan Bois de Boulogne danBois de Vincennes secara resmi dimasukkan dalam kota, memperluas wilayahnya menjadi 105.397 km² (40.69 sq mi).^[rujukan?]Ukuran demografi asli Paris, atau unité urbaine, meluas ke luar batas kota, membentuk oval dengan pertumbuhan urban di sepanjang sungai Seine dan Marne dari tenggara dan timur kota, dan sepanjang sungai Seine dan Oise ke baratlaut dan utara kota.^[rujukan?] Di luar pinggiran utama, kepadatan penduduk menurun tajam; campuran hutan dan pertanian bergabung dengan jaringan éparpillement atau kota sekitar, garis komuter couronne périurbaine ini, bila digabung dengan aglomerasi Paris, melengkapi aire urbaine Paris (atau wilayah urban Paris, sejenis wilayah metropolitan) yang menduduki oval seluas 14,518 km² (5,605.5 sq mi), atau sekitar 138 kali luas Paris itu sendiri.^[rujukan?]
Paris memiliki iklim laut dan dipengaruhi Arus Atlantik Utara, sehingga kota ini memiliki iklim menengah yang jarang mengalami temperatur tinggi atau rendah. Temperatur tinggi tahunan rata-rata sekitar 15 °C (59 °F), dan temperatur rendah tahunan sekitar 7 °C (45 °F). Temperatur tertinggi, tercatat pada 28 Juli 1948, 40.4 °C (104.7 °F), dan terendah adalah -23.9 °C (-11.0 °F) pada 10 Desember 1879.^[24] Wilayah Paris telah mengalami temperatur yang mencapai kedua angka itu, dengan gelombang panas 2003dan gelombang dingin 2006.
Hujan dapat terjadi kapanpun sepanjang tahun, dan Paris dikenal untuk hujan mendadaknya. Kota ini mengalami hujan tahunan rata-rata 641.6 mm (25.2 inci).^[24] Salju sangat jarang, kadang-kadang muncul pada bulan terdingin Januari atau Februari (selambat-lambatnya April), dan hampir tidak pernah cukup untuk membuat lapisan yang bertahan lebih dari sehari.^[rujukan?]

[sunting]Iklim

artikel ibu kota perancis

Paris (pengucapan /ˈpærɨs/ dalam bahasa Inggris;^[3] [paʁi] (bantuan·info) dalam bahasa Perancis) adalah ibu kota Perancis. Terletak di sungai Seine, di utara Perancis, di jantung region Île-de-France (juga dikenal sebagai "Region Paris"; bahasa Perancis: Région parisienne). Kota Paris pada batas administratifnya (tak berubah sejak 1860) memiliki penduduk 2.167.994 jiwa (Januari 2006).^[4] Unité urbaine Paris (atau wilayah urban) memanjang ke luar batas kota administratif dan memiliki perkiraan penduduk 9.93 juta (tahun 2005).^[5] Aire urbaine Paris (atau wilayah metropolitan) memiliki penduduk hampir 12 juta jiwa,^[6] dan merupakan salah satu wilayah metropolitan terpadat di Eropa.^[7]Pemukiman penting bagi lebih dari dua milenium, Paris hari ini menjadi salah satu pusat bisnis dan budaya terdepan di dunia, dan campuran politik, pendidikan, hiburan, media, fashion, sains dan seni semuanya membantu statusnya sebagai salah satukota global terbesar di dunia.^[8] Region Paris (Île-de-France) adalah ekonomi kota terbesar di Eropa, dan kelima terbesar dalamdaftar kota menurut PDB dunia. Dengan €500.8 miliar (US$628.9 miliar), kota ini menghasilkan seperempat produk domestik bruto (PDB) Perancis tahun 2006.^[9] Region Paris memiliki 36 dari perusahaan Fortune Global 500^[10] di beberapa distrik bisnis, terutama La Défense, distrik bisnis terbesar di Eropa.^[11] Paris juga memiliki banyak organisasi internasional sepertiUNESCO, OECD, ICC dan Paris Club.Paris adalah kota tujuan turis paling populer di dunia, dengan 30 juta pengunjung asing per tahun.^[12] Terdapat sejumlah marka tanah terkenal di antara berbagai atraksinya, bersama dengan institusi terkenal dan taman terpopuler di dunia.

The story of Paris begins with pre-history

Ancient human presence: The constant presence of man in Paris is recorded from 5000 years BC. Remains of hunting, mammoth bones, and those of deer and reindeer dating from that epoch were discovered in 1886 in a quarry at Beaugrenelle. Traces of a rural habitat and Neolithic tombs were also unearthed during excavation in the courtyards of the Louvre. Other clues indicate long-term settlements of these first occupants. Knapped flints were found in 1912 in the Place du Châtelet, indicating the presence of a pre-historic workshop. Similarly, objects were found during the excavation of warehouses at Bercy in 1991: construction posts, polished stones, bone tools, ceramics. An excellent situation: These itinerant hunters who were the first inhabitants, found in Paris a favourable site for a more permanent settlement. Paris enjoyed, in effect, a temperate climate all year round, even if – at that time – the climate was different. The topography is flat, with the exception of the surrounding hills of Montmartre (the highest point in Paris at 129 metres), Menilmontant, Chaillot, Belleville and Charonne. But above all it is the presence of a large river, such as the Seine which determined the presence of the first men in Paris. The Seine is navigable all the year. It forms, with its tributaries (the Aube, the Yonne and above all the Marne and the Oise), a veritable network of rivers, which allowed the first inhabitants to come and go over a wide area. In 1991, five canoes dating from between 3,400 and 4,200 BC were also discovered at Bercy. Thanks to this network, Paris became a river crossroads where commercial exchanges were easily carried out. In the middle of the Seine, the Ile de la Cité constituted an ideal refuge. A defensive site soon developed there. With banks close at each branch of the Seine, it is the historic heart of Paris. La Cité is not the only island in Paris, but it is the biggest, the most stable and is situated at the easiest crossing place of the river. The Ile St. Louis just beside it, was born of the joining of the two islands in the 16th century. The Gauls were the first Parisians: Paris was increasingly inhabited by Celts, but the first important village worthy of this name dates from the 3rd century BC. The Parisii, a gaulish people, were installed in Paris around 250 BC. They built a bridge across the Seine, which facilitated the taxation of all who passed over and under it. Paris, which was then called “Lutetia” became a place for the exchange of goods from the North, the South-West of France and the Mediterranean. Lutetia became “the town of the Parisii”, then finally, Paris in the 5th century AD. A Gallo-Roman city became Christian: In 52 BC the pro-consul Labienus – a lieutenant of Julius Caesar – conquered Lutetia. The cohabitation of the Gauls and the Romans went well for centuries. The town was at peace because the military front was principally in Germany. The Roman policy was tolerant in religious matters. The official doctrine was “your gods are our gods, but named differently". Little by little the Gauls and the Romans coexisted with both pantheons. Lutetia became an important commercial centre for the Roman Empire. The town was in the hands of the Nautes – merchant aristocrats who used boats for transporting their merchandise. Little remains of the gallo-roman city: the amphitheatre and the Museum of the Middle Ages - le Musée de Cluny - is situated in the ancient public baths, which can still be seen from the street. During the centuries of Roman presence, the Gauls became more like the Romans while still retaining their identity: in 212AD, by the Edict of Caracalla, all free inhabitants of the Empire became Roman citizens, and Christianity, which appeared in the city during the 3rd century, contributed, finally when the persecutions ceased, to diminish the differences. On the other hand, from the 3rd century onwards, insecurity reappeared in the Empire. Pagan peoples from the East of the Roman Empire threatened and later settled in the Empire, which finally collapsed during the sack of the city of Rome in 476AD. The city becomes the capital of France Paris under the Merovingian dynasty (508-751 AD): From then on, Paris must defend itself, usually under the authority of its Bishop. Already in 451 there was great panic because Attila the Hun menaced the city. Genevieve, a Parisian of barbarian origin, convinced the Parisians not to abandon the city to the Huns, who in the end by-passed Paris. She became the patron saint of Paris. Clovis, king of the Franks – another in-comer from the East - took control of the city in 508. He then conquered a large area which later became the kingdom of France. Clovis chose to settle in Paris to direct his kingdom. He was baptised, which was very important for the assimilation of the two peoples. Eventually he decided to be buried by the side of Saint Genevieve in Paris in 511. The descendants of Clovis, the Merovingians, continued to consider Paris as their principal city. Paris under the first Carolingians (751-987 AD): The dynasty which replaced the Merovingians after 751 had their origins in the Rhine area. Paris thus became just one of many towns when the centre of power moved towards the East (Metz or Aix-la-Chapelle). But the Carolingians decided to be buried at St Denis, with the exception of Charlemagne. From then on, kings of France were buried in the same place, in the basilica of St Denis in the North of Paris. The first Capetians (987-1500 AD): At the end of the ninth century a second wave of invaders (Vikings and Hungarians) weakened the power of the Carolingians. Paris could not count on them to battle against the numerous Viking raids. Five times the Vikings attacked the city because of its strategic position. Paris commanded the route towards the rich abbeys of Burgundy. In 885AD seven hundred Drakkars attacked Paris. Eudes, Count of Paris, found renown in defending the city. Tired of the weakness of the last Carolingians (the last is Charles VI le Gros see ALBUM), the nobles of the kingdom of France elected Eudes, who became king of western France (more or less the France of today). In 987 the great grandson of Eudes, Hugh Capet, became King of France. He founded the Capetian dynasty, which went on to reign until Louis-Philippe, last king of France, who abdicated in 1848. The Capetians made Paris their principal seat: the royal domain (the estate of land, rights and taxes which were in the hands of the king) extended around Paris. From the 12th century onwards, the kings of France came to restore their power over the whole of France. Because of invasions, a multitude of local lords developed to be able to defend the country at a local level. The kings restored their power over France by using Paris and its region as the hub of power. The French court remained itinerant throughout the Middle Ages. The king went from estate to estate to hunt or to make war, but the birth of the State was accompanied by the development of a central administration in Paris. Some key points of this development were: - In 1146 King Louis VII established his treasury in Paris while he was away on Crusade. From then on the royal treasure remained in Paris. - In 1194, at the battle of Freteval, King Philippe-Auguste was robbed of his archives by the English. The archives after that were kept in Paris. Meanwhile, it seems that it was above all in financial matters that the King wanted to establish a permanent seat. With the growth of the royal domain, the king`s tax collectors couldn`t continue to follow the king around the country from chateau to chateau. It was King Philippe-Auguste who endowed Paris with its institutions. Paris thus became a city of officials, lawyers and students. It was thus in the 12th century under the influence of the first Capetians that Paris became the capital of France. Certain constructions symbolised the attachment of the dynasty to the City. The Louvre was constructed in the Ile de la Cité. For the moment it was solely used as a fortress. Saint Louis also had built there the Sainte-Chapelle from 1243-1248. The crown of thorns of Christ, which had been given by the Emperor of Constantinople, was kept there. With the founding of the cathedral of Notre- Dame between 1163-1270, a unique artistic and religious ensemble was formed in the heart of Paris. The city grows: an evaluation at the end of the Middle Ages (1500 AD): The city grew throughout the Middle Ages and became the largest town in France. Under the Roman Empire the administrative capital was Lyon. During this period, this growth of Paris solved some problems but also raised others: From the beginning the city had evolved on three sites: the Ile de la Cité, the right bank and the left bank. From this initial reality it was necessary to try and create a single town. This was only partly realised. In 1420 there were five bridges in Paris. The enclosure of Philippe-Auguste brought together the three sites. But another problem arose: how to pass from a closed city to an open one. This problem remained for Paris until the 19th century, because two other enclosures were realised during the following centuries. During mediaeval times the city had oscillated between the right and left banks. The Romans had constructed their town on the left bank. Then this bank was practically forgotten when the city developed near the port on the right bank. The foundation of the University of Paris in the 13th century allowed the re-establishment of the left bank. Towards 1500 it was noticeable that the two banks were once more in balance thanks to the Latin Quarter – so named at that epoch because of the presence of students who studied in Latin. At the end of the Middle Ages Paris had achieved a size and importance exceptional in the kingdom. In the 13th century Paris was, with Naples, the largest city in Europe (two hundred thousand inhabitants). After a setback due to the Plague epidemics of the 14th and 15th centuries, Paris regained its level of population in 1500 AD. The city becomes a European capital The Italian Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation and the discovery of the routes to India and America put an end to the Middle Ages as new perspectives opened for Europeans. The Renaissance and the Reformation were felt very strongly in Paris. The French Renaissance was born partly in Paris, and the Reformation forced Parisians to choose a camp according to their conscience. Horizons continued to widen in the course of three centuries because all the continents established links: from the middle of the 17th century the presence of the court in Paris permitted the birth of an elite culture which was echoed in all the European courts. This period was troubled, like the Middle Ages, but Paris had acquired such an importance that the fortunes of the king and of the kingdom were frequently played out in the city. The power was more and more concentrated there, which also caused the French kings to mistrust the City. The Renaissance in Paris in the 16th century: Expeditions by the kings of France in Italy were the occasion for them to discover the Italian Renaissance, which was a cultural movement characterised by a renewal of interest in antiquity. The Roman and Greek taste for architecture, philosophy and above all their mythology were rediscovered. At the same time, a new benevolence towards mankind imposed itself, inspired by the ancients, called Humanism. King Francois 1st (king from 1515-1547), brought from Italy the pattern for the ideal city. He began to pave the quays of the Seine and he brought about the first attempts at aligning the streets. But above all he gave impetus to a new intellectual life which established itself on the left bank. The Sorbonne district after 1550 became the largest centre of education and of publishing in Europe. Calvin and Erasmus, for example, studied in the austere college of Montaigu. But it was after the death of Francois 1st that the Renaissance style appeared in Paris: many Italian artists brought new inspiration to building, but little remains of the work accomplished. The tower St Jacques was built and churches such as St Germain l`Auxerrois, the Hôtel de Ville, the Pont Neuf - the first stone bridge across the Seine - and the rue Montorgueil. During the construction of the Tuileries, and above all the Louvre (the old fortress was razed by Francois 1st), sculpters such as Jean Goujon and Pierre Lescot created the French Renaissance style. The sculptures of Jean Goujon on the wing of the Louvre separating the two courtyards foreshadowed the French classic style of the 17th century, a sober, measured style. Pierre Lescot also designed the Pont Neuf which was opened in 1607 by King Henry IV. The religious wars in Paris in the 16th century: The entire 16th century was marked by the conflict between Protestants and Catholics. Paris, seat of power, remained catholic but the major stages in the conflict were played out there. In 1572 the St Bartholomew massacre was the peak of the horror, marking long afterwards the minds of the people. The conflict came to an end when the pretender Henry of Navarre, a Protestant, agreed to convert to catholicism. He became King Henry IV and issued the Edict of Nantes (1598), an act of tolerance, which appeased the conflict (until 1685). It was than that he uttered his famous “Paris vaut bien une messe.” (Paris is well worth a Mass). Paris in the 17th and 18th centuries: The 17th century marked a turning point in the urbanisation of Paris. When Henry IV entered Paris, a fever of construction took hold of the city. It was not until the 19th century that a similar growth was resumed. For the first time, the plans took account of the totality of the city. Sufficient bridges were constructed. But above all, what was constructed was of the highest quality: the Louvre, the Tuileries, the Botanical Gardens, the Luxembourg and the future Palais Royal, the district of the Marais, with its numerous grand private houses, the Place Royale (the Place des Vosges of today) and the Place Dauphine were created, and also hospitals (Saint Louis, the Val de Grace), streets and churches. During the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715), the rate of construction slowed. Louis XIV wanted to make Paris into a new Rome. It was to remain just a project. His relations with Paris were always ambiguous. From 1671 to his death in 1715, during the last 44 years of his reign, he came to Paris only 28 times - often, just to attend one Mass. Louis XIV always remembered the night in his childhood, when he was forced to flee the capital then gripped with La Fronde (a revolt of the members of parliament and nobles who took advantage of his minority). He built his chateau at Versailles just outside Paris. Versailles thus became the seat of power, even though those who went to the court still often lived in Paris. Louis XIV did, however, raze the walls of Paris. He finished the Louvre, where he stayed rarely, and had built les Invalides and the Institute. The architects of Versailles also built in Paris: Jules Hardouin Mansart completed the Place Vendôme (1698), Le Vau built large houses in the Marais, the whole realised in the classical style – the opposite of the baroque style then prevalent throughout the rest of Europe. In the eighteenth century Paris enjoyed an ever-increasing importance in the kingdom: Paris was the centre of a new network of roads, allowing access to the whole country. Louis XV sent royal officers as stewards to investigate and to represent him everywhere. At the same time, the parliament of Paris – which was the most powerful parliament in the country – attempted to limit the power of the King. The quarrel between king and parliament occupied the whole century. In the city, Louis XV created the Place Louis XV (which eventually became the Place de la Concorde) in 1749, and the Champs de Mars with the military academy between 1752 and 1770. After 1730, the fashion for the district of the Marais diminished in favour of the Faubourgs St Germain and St Honoré, where large private construction projects took place. At this time, Paris extended towards the West, the length of the Seine. In 1724, the route which now corresponds with the Champs-Elysées, was traced in a zone sparsely inhabited at that time. In 1772 it was extended up to the present-day Pont de Neuilly. The future Avenue de la Grande Armée and the principal axis routes of Paris were created. The lights of Paris 1660-1789: Having followed the Italian fashion, principally in the 16th century, Paris played a central role in the culture of Europe. The life of the court of Versailles was copied throughout Europe, starting with Louis XIV. For example, the architecture of Versailles inspired the plan for the canals of St Petersburg, the plan of Washington and the châteaux of numerous German princes. Parisian fashion, taste and style were diffused throughout the 18th century. The international language was French. In literary salons discussion was free and the latest important books were read. Philosophers such as Voltaire, Diderot, Condorcet became the stars there. They were often invited to other European courts. They freely criticised and examined minutely all the problems of society. The monarchy was not spared. Diderot published the Encyclopedie – the first of its kind. The work was condemned for its attack on the Church. They defended the new values in vogue such as merit or usefulness and condemned that which was obtained by divine right or by nepotism. The French revolution found part of its origin in this movement baptised “Les Lumieres” (the Lights).

“Now a pale sun like a half-sucked peppermint is melting in the sky. I’m still here to all appearance. But the “essential moi”, is in Paris sitting in a darkish room opposite an unknown man. Whether I will follow this one I don’t know yet. When does one really begin a journey - or a friendship - or a love affair? It is those beginnings which are so fascinating and so misunderstood.”